https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil_fuel
Fossil fuel
"Oil and gas" redirects here. For other uses, see Oil and gas (disambiguation).
Look up fossil fuel in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
A fossil fuel is a fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic
decomposition of buried dead organisms, containing organic molecules
originating in ancient photosynthesis[1] that release energy in combustion.[2]
Such organisms and their resulting fossil fuels typically have an age of
millions of years, and sometimes more than 650 million years.[3] Fossil fuels
contain high percentages of carbon and include petroleum, coal, and natural
gas.[4] Commonly used derivatives of fossil fuels include kerosene and propane.
Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon-to-hydrogen ratios
(like methane), to liquids (like petroleum), to nonvolatile materials composed
of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in
hydrocarbon fields alone, associated with oil, or in the form of methane
clathrates.
Coal, a fossil fuel
As of 2018, the world's main primary energy sources consisted of petroleum
(34%), coal (27%), and natural gas (24%), amounting to an 85% share for fossil
fuels in primary energy consumption in the world. Non-fossil sources included
nuclear (4.4%), hydroelectric (6.8%), and other renewables (4.0%, including
geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, wood, and waste).[5] The share of renewables
(including traditional biomass) in the world's total final energy consumption
was 18% in 2018.[6] Compared with 2017, world energy-consumption grew at a rate
of 2.9%, almost double its 10-year average of 1.5% per year, and the fastest
since 2010.[7]
Although fossil fuels are continually formed by natural processes, they are
generally classified as non-renewable resources because they take millions of
years to form and known viable reserves are being depleted much faster than new
ones are generated.[8][9]
Most air pollution deaths are due to fossil fuel combustion products, it is
estimated to cost over 3% of global GDP,[10] and fossil fuel phase-out would
save 3.6 million lives each year.[11]
The use of fossil fuels raises serious environmental concerns. The burning of
fossil fuels produces around 35 billion tonnes (35 gigatonnes) of carbon
dioxide (CO2) per year.[12] Natural processes can only absorb a small part of
that amount, so there is a net increase of many billion tonnes of atmospheric
carbon dioxide per year.[13] CO2 is a greenhouse gas that increases radiative
forcing and contributes to global warming and ocean acidification. A global
movement towards the generation of low-carbon renewable energy is underway to
help reduce global greenhouse-gas emissions. But in 2019 fossil fuels were
subsidized $320 billion.
Origin
Since oil fields are located only at certain places on earth,[14] only some
countries are oil-independent; the other countries depend on the oil-production
capacities of these countries
The theory that fossil fuels formed from the fossilized remains of dead plants
by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's crust over millions of years
was first introduced by Andreas Libavius "in his 1597 Alchemia [Alchymia]" and
later by Mikhail Lomonosov "as early as 1757 and certainly by 1763".[15] The
first use of the term "fossil fuel" occurs in the work of the German chemist
Caspar Neumann, in English translation in 1759.[16] The Oxford English
Dictionary notes that in the phrase "fossil fuel" the adjective "fossil" means
"[o]btained by digging; found buried in the earth", which dates to at least
1652,[17] before the English noun "fossil" came to refer primarily to long-dead
organisms in the early 18th century.[18]
Aquatic phytoplankton and zooplankton that died and sedimented in large
quantities under anoxic conditions millions of years ago began forming
petroleum and natural gas as a result of anaerobic decomposition. Over
geological time this organic matter, mixed with mud, became buried under
further heavy layers of inorganic sediment. The resulting high temperature and
pressure caused the organic matter to chemically alter, first into a waxy
material known as kerogen, which is found in oil shales, and then with more
heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons in a process known as catagenesis.
Despite these heat driven transformations (which increase the energy density
compared to typical organic matter by removal of oxygen atoms),[2] the energy
released in combustion is still photosynthetic in origin.[1]
Terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tended to form coal and methane. Many of
the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth's history.
Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas.
There is a wide range of organic compounds in any given fuel. The specific
mixture of hydrocarbons gives a fuel its characteristic properties, such as
density, viscosity, boiling point, melting point, etc. Some fuels like natural
gas, for instance, contain only very low boiling, gaseous components. Others
such as gasoline or diesel contain much higher boiling components.
Importance
A petrochemical refinery in Grangemouth, Scotland, UK
See also: Fossil fuel power plant
Fossil fuels are of great importance because they can be burned (oxidized to
carbon dioxide and water), producing significant amounts of energy per unit
mass. The use of coal as a fuel predates recorded history. Coal was used to run
furnaces for the smelting of metal ore. While semi-solid hydrocarbons from
seeps were also burned in ancient times,[19] they were mostly used for
waterproofing and embalming.[20]
Commercial exploitation of petroleum began in the 19th century, largely to
replace oils from animal sources (notably whale oil) for use in oil lamps.[21]
Natural gas, once flared-off as an unneeded byproduct of petroleum production,
is now considered a very valuable resource.[22] Natural gas deposits are also
the main source of helium.
Heavy crude oil, which is much more viscous than conventional crude oil, and
oil sands, where bitumen is found mixed with sand and clay, began to become
more important as sources of fossil fuel in the early 2000s.[23] Oil shale and
similar materials are sedimentary rocks containing kerogen, a complex mixture
of high-molecular weight organic compounds, which yield synthetic crude oil
when heated (pyrolyzed). With additional processing, they can be employed
instead of other established fossil fuels. More recently, there has been
disinvestment from exploitation of such resources due to their high carbon cost
relative to more easily processed reserves.[24]
Prior to the latter half of the 18th century, windmills and watermills provided
the energy needed for industry such as milling flour, sawing wood or pumping
water, while burning wood or peat provided domestic heat. The wide-scale use of
fossil fuels, coal at first and petroleum later, in steam engines enabled the
Industrial Revolution. At the same time, gas lights using natural gas or coal
gas were coming into wide use. The invention of the internal combustion engine
and its use in automobiles and trucks greatly increased the demand for gasoline
and diesel oil, both made from fossil fuels. Other forms of transportation,
railways and aircraft, also require fossil fuels. The other major use for
fossil fuels is in generating electricity and as feedstock for the
petrochemical industry. Tar, a leftover of petroleum extraction, is used in
construction of roads.
Reserves
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An oil well in the Gulf of Mexico
See also: Oil reserves
Levels of primary energy sources are the reserves in the ground. Flows are
production of fossil fuels from these reserves. The most important primary
energy sources are carbon-based fossil energy sources.
Environmental effects
The Global Carbon Project shows how additions to CO
2 since 1880 have been caused by different sources ramping up one after another.
Main articles: Effects of global warming and Environmental impact of the coal
industry
The use of fossil fuels was central to the industrial revolution and over the
past few centuries has helped deliver huge improvements to the standard of
living across the planet. Nevertheless, the burning of fossil fuels has a
number of negative externalities - harmful environmental impacts where the
effects extend beyond the people using the fuel. The actual effects depend on
the fuel in question. All fossil fuels release CO
2 when they burn, thus accelerating climate change. Burning coal, and to a
lesser extent oil and its derivatives, contribute to atmospheric particulate
matter, smog and to acid rain.[25][26][27]
Global surface temperature reconstruction over the last 2000 years using proxy
data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in blue.[28] Directly observational
data is in red, with all data showing a 5 year moving average.[29]
In 2020, renewables overtook fossil fuels as the European Union's main source
of electricity for the first time.[30]
Climate change is largely driven by the release of greenhouse gasses like CO
2, with the burning of fossil fuels being the main source of these emissions.
While climate change may have positive effects in some parts of the world, in
other parts it is already negatively impacting ecosystems. This includes
contributing to the extinction of species and reducing people's ability to
produce food, thus adding to the problem of hunger. Continued rises in global
temperatures will lead to further adverse effects on both ecosystems and
people, with the World Health Organization having stated climate change is the
greatest threat to human health in the 21st century.[31][32][33][34]
Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric and nitric acids, which fall to
Earth as acid rain, impacting both natural areas and the built environment.
Monuments and sculptures made from marble and limestone are particularly
vulnerable, as the acids dissolve calcium carbonate.
Fossil fuels also contain radioactive materials, mainly uranium and thorium,
which are released into the atmosphere. In 2000, about 12,000 tonnes of thorium
and 5,000 tonnes of uranium were released worldwide from burning coal.[35] It
is estimated that during 1982, US coal burning released 155 times as much
radioactivity into the atmosphere as the Three Mile Island accident.[36]
Burning coal also generates large amounts of bottom ash and fly ash. These
materials are used in a wide variety of applications, utilizing, for example,
about 40% of the US production.[37]
In addition to effects that result from burning, the harvesting, processing,
and distribution of fossil fuels also has environmental effects. Coal mining
methods, particularly mountaintop removal and strip mining, have negative
environmental impacts, and offshore oil drilling poses a hazard to aquatic
organisms. Fossil fuel wells can contribute to methane release via fugitive gas
emissions. Oil refineries also have negative environmental impacts, including
air and water pollution. Transportation of coal requires the use of
diesel-powered locomotives, while crude oil is typically transported by tanker
ships, requiring the combustion of additional fossil fuels.
A variety of mitigating efforts have arisen to counter the negative effects of
fossil fuels. This includes a movement to use alternative energy sources, such
as renewable energy. Environmental regulation uses a variety of approaches to
limit these emissions, for examples rules against releasing waste products like
fly ash into the atmosphere. Other efforts include economic incentives, such as
increased taxes for fossil fuels, and subsidies for alternative energy
technologies like solar panels.[27]
In December 2020, the United Nations released a report saying that despite the
need to reduce green house emissions, various governments are "doubling down"
on fossil fuels, in some cases diverting more than 50% more of their Covid-19
recovery stimulus funding to fossil fuel production rather than to alternative
energy. The UN secretary general António Guterres declared that "Humanity is
waging war on nature. This is suicidal. Nature always strikes back – and it is
already doing so with growing force and fury." Guterres also said there is
still cause for hope, with US president elect Joe Biden having suggested that
the US will join other large emitters like China and the E.U. in adopting
targets to reach net zero emissions.[38][39][40]
Illness and deaths
Hypothetical number of global deaths which would have resulted from energy
production if the world's energy production was met through a single source, in
2014.
Environmental pollution from fossil fuels impacts humans because particulates
and other air pollution from fossil fuel combustion cause illness and death
when inhaled. These health effects include premature death, acute respiratory
illness, aggravated asthma, chronic bronchitis and decreased lung function. The
poor, undernourished, very young and very old, and people with preexisting
respiratory disease and other ill health, are more at risk.[41] Total global
air pollution deaths reach 7 million annually.[42]
While all energy sources have inherently adverse effects, the data shows that
fossil fuels cause the highest levels of greenhouse gas emissions and are the
most dangerous for human health. In contrast, modern renewable energy sources
appear to be safer for human health and cleaner. The death rate from accidents
and air pollution in the EU are as follows per terawatt-hour: coal (24.6
deaths), oil (18.4 deaths), natural gas (2.8 deaths), biomass (4.6 deaths),
hydropower (0.02 deaths), nuclear energy (0.07 deaths), wind (0.04 deaths), and
solar (0.02 deaths). The greenhouse gas emissions from each energy source are
as followed measured in tonnes: coal (820 tonnes), oil (720 tonnes), natural
gas (490 tonnes), biomass (78-230 tonnes), hydropower (34 tonnes), nuclear
energy (3 tonnes), wind (4 tonnes), and solar (5 tonnes).[43] As the data
shows, coal, oil, natural gas, and biomass cause higher death rates and higher
levels of greenhouse gas emissions than hydropower, nuclear energy, wind, and
solar power. Scientists propose that 1.8 million lives have been saved by
replacing fossil fuel sources with nuclear power.[44]
Phase-out
This paragraph is an excerpt from Fossil fuel phase-out
Fossil fuel phase-out is the gradual reduction of the use of fossil fuels to
zero.
It is part of the ongoing renewable energy transition. Current efforts in
fossil fuel phase-out involve replacing fossil fuels with sustainable energy
sources in sectors such as transport, and heating. Alternatives to fossil fuels
include electrification, hydrogen and aviation biofuel.
Investment: Companies, governments and households invested $501.3 billion in
decarbonization in 2020, including renewable energy (solar, wind), electric
vehicles and associated charging infrastructure, energy storage,
energy-efficient heating systems, carbon capture and storage, and hydrogen.[45]
Cost: With increasingly widespread implementation of renewable energy sources,
costs have declined, most notably for energy generated by solar panels.[46]
Levelized cost of energy (LCOE) is a measure of the average net present cost of
electricity generation for a generating plant over its lifetime.
Industry
Main articles: Coal industry and Petroleum industry
Further information: Fossil fuel exporters and Fossil fuels lobby
This section needs to be updated. Please update this article to reflect recent
events or newly available information. (April 2020)
In 2014, the global energy industry revenue was about US$8 trillion,[47] with
about 84% fossil fuel, 4% nuclear, and 12% renewable (including
hydroelectric).[48]
In 2014, there were 1,469 oil and gas firms listed on stock exchanges around
the world, with a combined market capitalization of US$4.65 trillion.[49] In
2019, Saudi Aramco was listed and it touched a US$2 trillion valuation on its
second day of trading,[50] after the world's largest initial public
offering.[51]
Economic effects
Air pollution from fossil fuels in 2018 has been estimated to cost US$2.9
trillion, or 3.3% of global GDP.[10]
Subsidy
The International Energy Agency estimated 2019 global government fossil fuel
subsidies to have been $320 billion.[52]
A 2015 report studied 20 fossil fuel companies and found that, while highly
profitable, the hidden economic cost to society was also large.[53][54] The
report spans the period 2008–2012 and notes that: "For all companies and all
years, the economic cost to society of their CO
2 emissions was greater than their after‐tax profit, with the single exception
of ExxonMobil in 2008."[53]:4 Pure coal companies fare even worse: "the
economic cost to society exceeds total revenue in all years, with this cost
varying between nearly $2 and nearly $9 per $1 of revenue."[53]:5 In this case,
total revenue includes "employment, taxes, supply purchases, and indirect
employment."[53]:4
Fossil fuel prices generally are below their actual costs, or their "efficient
prices," when economic externalities, such as the costs of air pollution and
global climate destruction, are taken into account. Fossil fuels are subsidized
in the amount of $4.7 trillion in 2015, which is equivalent to 6.3% of the 2015
global GDP and are estimated to grow to $5.2 trillion in 2017, which is
equivalent to 6.5% of global GDP. The largest five subsidizers in 2015 were the
following: China with $1.4 trillion in fossil fuel subsidies, United States
with $649 billion, Russia with $551 billion, the European Union with $289
billion, and India with $209 billion. Had there been no subsidies for fossil
fuels, global carbon emissions would have been lowered by an estimated 28% in
2015, air-pollution related deaths reduced by 46%, and government revenue
increased by $2.8 trillion or 3.8% of GDP.[55]
See also
Abiogenic petroleum origin proposes that petroleum is not a fossil fuel
Bioremediation
Carbon bubble
Environmental impact of the energy industry
Externality
Fossil Fools Day
Fossil Fuel Beta
Fossil fuel divestment
Fossil fuel drilling
Fossil fuel exporters
Fossil fuel phase-out
Fossil fuels lobby
Fugitive gas emissions
Hydraulic fracturing
Liquefied petroleum gas
Low-carbon power
Peak coal
Peak gas
Petroleum industry
Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles
Resource decoupling
Shale gas
Oil shale
Footnotes
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Further reading
Ross Barrett and Daniel Worden (eds.), Oil Culture. Minneapolis, MN: University
of Minnesota Press, 2014.
Bob Johnson, Carbon Nation: Fossil Fuels in the Making of American Culture.
Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2014.
External links
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