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From: "'niem.migr' NIEM.migr@xxxxxxxxx [niem_rj]" <niem_rj@xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx>
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Subject: [NIEM] 37 maps that explain how America is a nation of immigrants
http://www.vox.com/2015/1/12/7474897/immigration-america-maps
37 maps that explain how America is a nation of immigrants
by Dara Lind on June 10, 2015 American politicians, and Americans
themselves, love to call themselves "a nation of immigrants": a place where
everyone's family has, at some point, chosen to come to seek freedom or a
better life. America has managed to maintain that self-image through the forced
migration of millions of African slaves, restrictive immigration laws based on
fears of "inferior" races, and nativist movements that encouraged immigrants to
assimilate or simply leave.But while the reality of America's immigrant
heritage is more complicated than the myth, it's still a fundamental truth of
the country's history. It's impossible to understand the country today without
knowing who's been kept out, who's been let in, and how they've been treated
once they arrive.
Where we come from
- US Census Bureau
We’re all immigrants
This map from the 2000 census colors each county according to which country
most of its residents cite as their "ancestry." What might be most surprising
about this map is the predominance of light yellow in Appalachia; in those
counties, more people say their ancestry is simply "American" than anything
else. But this is a strikingly recent phenomenon: the number of people saying
their ancestry was "American" nearly doubled from 1990 to 2000. It’s amazing
that in a country that’s been around for more than 200 years — with many family
lineages having lived in the New World for even longer — most people are still
able to identify their ancestry based on the countries in which their families
lived before they immigrated to the United States.
- Erika Tamm et al./PLoS ONE
The very first American migration
Even the first Americans were immigrants — it's generally accepted that they
came across "Beringia" (the land that's now the Bering Strait, the body of
water between Russia and Alaska) at least 20,000 years ago (and possibly as
long as 30,000 years ago). But scientists are still trying to piece together
when the first Americans came through Beringia; how many of them there were;
and whether they came all at once, or in multiple waves.This map, from a 2007
paper, is based on an analysis of mitochondrial DNA — which children inherit
only from their mother, making it easier to trace one line back for many
generations. The researchers hypothesize that the group that came to Beringia
from Asia, approximately 25,000 years ago, actually stayed in Beringia for some
time before some of them came through to the Americas. Then, however —
according to this analysis — they populated the Americas fairly quickly,
spreading as far south as Chile by 15,000 years ago. The analysis also suggests
that some early Americans migrated back to Asia from Beringia, while other,
newer waves of immigrants crossed to America.
- Worldmapper.org
America has more immigrants than anybody
Later waves of European immigration killed off most of the first Americans
(largely through European diseases, which traveled through the Americas much
more quickly than European humans did). That set the stage for European
Americans to rebrand the United States, in particular (where indigenous
populations were almost completely "replaced"), as a "nation of immigrants."
Even today, America is still home to more total immigrants than any other
country in the world. In this map, each country's size is distorted to reflect
the size of its immigrant population. It's based on 2005 data, but a 2013 UN
report shows that 19.8 percent of the world's international migrants live in
the United States.
- OECD
...but as a share of the population, the US doesn't crack the top 10
As much as American politicians pat themselves on the back for representing
"the most welcoming country in the world," there are smaller countries that
have been more open to immigrants in recent decades. So on this chart from the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), which measures
the percentage of each country's population that was made up of immigrants in
2000 (the orange dot) and 2010 (the blue bar), America doesn't even hit the top
10. Some of the countries that outrank the United States are tiny — it's much
easier for 40 percent of Luxembourg's population to be immigrants, since the
country has only 540,000 people, than it would be for the United States — but
medium-size countries like Canada, Australia, and Spain also outrank the United
States.
- Pew Research Center
The simplest explanation of how immigration to America has changed
If this feature were called "A nation of immigrants in one map," this is the
one we’d show you. The bottom line: before 1965, Germany sent more immigrants
to America than anyone else; after 1965, Mexico did.Here's why: from World War
I to 1965, the immigration system was designed, essentially, to keep the United
States white. Rice University sociologist Stephen Klineberg has called it
"unbelievable in its clarity of racism." Each country was given a certain quota
of immigrants who were allowed to come to the United States each year, based on
who'd been in the country in 1890.Combined with existing laws that prevented
any Asian Americans from coming into the country, the laws of the 1920s
basically froze the demographics of the immigrant population in place until
1965.
- @MetricMaps
The Danish Utahns, and other immigrant enclaves
This GIF, compiled by internet hero @MetricMaps, tracks where immigrants from
different countries have settled in the United States. The result is an
exhaustive portrait of more than two dozen different native countries and
regions. Some ancestry groups pop up in interesting places, revealing forgotten
pockets of American history — the Danish population in Utah, for example, is
the result of an extremely early wave of Danish conversion to the Church of
Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormons).
Forced migration, then and now
- David Eltis and David Richardson/Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade,
reprinted with permission of Yale University Press
Forced migration built America
The American myth about "a nation of immigrants" excludes millions of forced
migrants to America from Africa, who were brought to the US over two centuries
of the trans-Atlantic slave trade. It's hard to overstate how much slaves built
America: according to historian Steven Deyle, the value of all slaves in 1860
was seven times the value of all currency then in circulation in the United
States. Slave labor built the agrarian economy of the South and fed the cotton
mills of the industrializing North. But slaves had no way to become citizens,
build wealth, or bring their families — they had no opportunity to practice the
self-reliance that America often expects of its immigrants.
- David Eltis and David Richardson/Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade,
reprinted with permission of Yale University Press
The first illegal migrations were of trafficked slaves
The forced migration of Africans to America also represents the first
unauthorized migration to the United States. The Constitution banned the
"importation" (trafficking) of slaves into the United States after 1809, but
black-market slave trading continued until the Civil War. According to
historian David Eltis of Emory University, 1.5 million Africans arrived in the
Americas after the countries they landed in had theoretically banned the slave
trade. Because there were no restrictions on voluntary migration to the United
States until the 1880s, these were the first people to come to the country
illegally.The Atlas of the Transatlantic Slave Trade documents 78,360 slaves
landing in mainland North America from 1800 to 1865 — about 20 percent of all
arrivals over the 200 years of the slave trade. (Since slave importation wasn't
banned until 1807, many of those arrivals could have been legal.)
- Dave Eames and Mark Morris/Kansas City Star
Modern-day forced migration: human trafficking
Large-scale human trafficking is no longer legal, let alone widely condoned.
But it still happens. This graphic is one attempt to map the global reach of
the contemporary human-smuggling industry.A report by the Urban Institute in
2014 interviewed 122 victims of labor trafficking in the United States, and
found that 71 percent of those trafficked actually had legal visas when they
arrived in the country. But because immigrant workers' legal status is tied to
their employer, most victims who escaped their traffickers had lost their legal
status by the time they were connected to law enforcement. Furthermore, the
report found, public officials often encountered labor-trafficking victims and
failed to realize what was going on — or, worse, sided with the traffickers and
threatened to report the victims to federal immigration agents.
A nation of immigrants
- Library of Congress
The most famous immigrant in American history
Give me your tired, your poor;
Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free;
The wretched refuse of your teeming shore;
Send these, the homeless, tempest-toss’d, to me;
I lift my lamp beside the golden door.
—Emma Lazarus, 1883Of course, the Statue of Liberty was itself an immigrant.
It was designed and cast in copper in France over the span of a decade, from
1876 to 1884, as an intended gift from the French government to the United
States. But the statue then had to wait in France for several months until the
Americans had done enough work on its pedestal. It was then shipped to the
United States in 350 separate pieces, housed in 214 crates, to be assembled by
American workers once it arrived.
- Frank P. Sargent/Commission-General of Immigration (via Michigan State
University)
An insanely detailed map of immigrants in America from 1903
This exhaustive map includes 51 infographics (for each state plus Washington,
DC). The right column of the infographic covers how many immigrants settled in
the state each year; the left column shows their occupations. The top depicts
the ethnic mix, color-coded by race: Teutonic, Keltic, Slavic, Iberic,
Mongolic, and "all others."At the time, those racial labels were real — and the
source of anxiety. A medical journal article from this era expressed concern
about the "preponderance of the Iberic and Slavic races" among recent
immigrants, because of "their poorer physical and mental equipment" compared to
"Celtic and Teutonic" immigrants.
- Florence Kelley et al.
How charities helped immigrants become American
The organization Hull House (founded by Jane Addams) was devoted to serving
Chicago's urban poor; in the process, it set the template for charity in
America. And most of Chicago's urban poor were immigrants: in 1890, in fact,
immigrants made up 77 percent of the city's population. To better tailor its
services to the communities it served (and to assist the federal government in
its study of urban "ghettos"), Hull House researchers produced maps like this
one, which shows the ethnicity of each immigrant family living in a given
tenement block.The result was that Hull House increasingly focused on teaching
English, civics, and other skills that would help immigrants and
first-generation Americans assimilate — what would be called the
"Americanization" movement. The existence of organizations like Hull House,
which were willing to take the time to help immigrants acclimate to America and
learn things (like English) that they needed to succeed, was an important
factor in helping the European immigrants of 100 years ago assimilate to the
point where they simply counted as "white" Americans.
- Claude S. Fischer, Mike Hout, Aliya Saperstein
Are today's immigrants less Americanized?
The "Americanization" movement of the early 1900s wasn't just about how to help
immigrants. It was also grounded in the belief that immigrants should be
welcomed to the United States only if they wanted to, and could, be
successfully assimilated into America. That idea survives today, in everything
from the metaphor of the country as a "melting pot" to the demand that
immigrants "learn English." But while "learning English" is shorthand for
assimilation, and despite fears that this generation of immigrants is less
assimilated than their forerunners, immigrants to America in the late 20th
century were much more likely to know English when they got here, or to pick it
up quickly, than the immigrants who lived at Hull House. Even Latino
immigrants, who lag behind other immigrants (who tend to be more educated) in
how long it takes them to speak English, perform much better than the European
immigrants of the 1880s.
- Pew Hispanic Trends Project
The grandchildren of today’s Latino immigrants barely speak Spanish
Second-generation Latinos — the children of immigrants — tend to be fully
bilingual; this might mean they're used to speaking with their parents in
Spanish but using English outside the home, or just that they're in situations
where they deal with Spanish and English speakers pretty much equally. And with
the third generation, who are grandchildren of immigrants, bilingualism fades
quickly. In fact, the proportion of immigrants who speak mostly English (35
percent) is bigger than the share of Latinos who are thoroughly bilingual in
the third generation.
- Pew Charitable Trusts
Immigrants are saving the Midwest
More Americans are leaving Middle America than moving there (with the exception
of North Dakota). But immigrants are forestalling Middle America's demographic
decline. A Chicago Council study in 2014 found four metro areas (including
Davenport, Iowa, on the Illinois border, and Duluth in eastern Minnesota) that
grew between 2000 and 2010 solely because of the immigrant population, and
another five where immigrants made up more than 50 percent of the metro area's
total growth over that time. But immigrants might be having an even bigger
impact in rural areas in Middle America, where the demographic crunch is most
acute. In Kansas, immigrants make up 5.3 percent of the rural population; in
Nebraska it's 4.8 percent. Just as importantly, immigrants are making these
areas demographically younger. The Chicago Council report found that Wichita,
Kansas, for example, lost 24 percent of its 35- to 44-year-old, native-born
population from 2000 to 2010 — but its immigrant population in that age range
grew by 87 percent.
A nation of (immigration) laws
- Natalia Bronshtein
200 years of immigration in one gorgeous visual
It's easy now to assume that Mexico has always been among the main sources of
immigration to America. But as this wonderful chart by Natalia Bronshtein
(using 200 years of government data) shows, that’s not even close to true.
There’s an interactive version on Bronshtein’s website: you can hover over any
color, at any point, and see the exact number of immigrants who became
residents from that country in that decade. But taken as a whole, the chart
tells a very clear story: there are two laws that totally transformed
immigration to the United States.
- The New York Times
The 1920s law that made immigration much less diverse — and created illegal
immigration as we know it
Because the quota laws were passed in the early 1920s, but were based on
immigration flows from 1890, they actually rolled back immigration from certain
countries. Politicians were worried that new immigrants from Southern and
Eastern Europe (largely Italians and Jews) were genetically "inferior"
immigrant stock was threatening Americans' quality of life. This pair of maps,
from the New York Times, shows the effects of the primary quota law: the
National Origins Act of 1924. The map to the left of the slider shows annual
immigration to America from various European countries before the law was
passed; the map to the right of the slider shows the quotas imposed for each
country under the law. The National Origins Act forced the legal immigrant
population to plummet — and made "illegal immigration" a widespread phenomenon
for the first time in American history. It hasn't stopped since.
- Smithsonian Institution
How America began to rely on Mexican labor
With World War II causing labor shortages, the United States started to
encourage seasonal labor from Mexico. As the map shows, the 2 million braceros
who came under the program (from 1942 to 1964) migrated from all over Mexico to
most of the United States. Most worked in agriculture, under punishing
conditions: according to some reports, braceros were sprayed directly with DDT
(an insecticide now known to be carcinogenic and toxic to humans). The bracero
program was supposed to prevent migrants from settling in the United States by
sending 10 percent of their paychecks back to Mexico. But many braceros
returned to Mexico only to discover their money had not. Many Mexican Americans
are descended from braceros, and the memory of their mistreatment colors their
opinions of guest-worker proposals today.
- Migration Policy Institute
America's only been a global destination for the past 50 years
The modern era of immigration to America began in 1965, when the restrictionist
quotas of the National Origins Act were replaced by the Immigration and
Nationality Act. It’s only in this era that immigration to the United States
has really become a global phenomenon — with European and Mexican immigrants
joined by Asian, Central and South American, and African immigrants. There are
still more immigrants from some countries than from others — in 2013, there
were twice as many naturalized US citizens from Mexico as from any other
country — but as this chart shows, immigration to the United States has never
been more globally balanced.
- Mike Flynn, Shikha Dalmia, Terry Colon/Reason Magazine
How to come here the right way
From one perspective, there are plenty of ways to come to the United States
legally — there's an alphabet soup of visas, not to mention immigrant
Americans' ability to sponsor family members for green cards. But the
overwhelming majority of the world's non-American population isn't eligible for
any of these paths. In other words, there's no legal immigration "line" for
them to get into. Furthermore, there are far too many qualified applicants for
most available visas — causing years-long (or even decades-long) backlogs for
Mexican, Chinese, Indian and Filipino immigrants hoping to bring their parents,
adult children, or siblings to the United States. This flowchart, from Reason
Magazine, shows who's able to come "the right way" and who isn't. Spoiler
alert: most aren't, and most of those who are will have to wait a long time.
- Joe Posner/Vox
The era of unauthorized immigration: 1996–2006
This chart documents the biggest wave of unauthorized migration in US history:
from 1996, when the economy was booming and a law made it harder for
unauthorized immigrants to "get legal," to the US recession of the late 2000s.
The line graph (and the left y-axis) shows how many immigrants entered the
country illegally each year; the bar chart (and the right y-axis) shows the
estimated number of unauthorized immigrants living in the United States at that
time.
Nativism, then and now
- Ipsos MORI via Quartz
One reason some Americans fear immigrants? They overestimate how many there are
Americans have an unfortunate tendency to overestimate how many people in the
United States are immigrants — possibly because many white Americans assume
that most Latinos in the United States are immigrants (and some assume most
Latinos in the United States are unauthorized immigrants). Fears of America
being overrun by immigrants make a little more sense if you think that a third
of people living in the United States are immigrants already.
- National Atlas of the United States
America’s first single-issue party was anti-immigrant
The American Party of the 1840s and 1850s was often called, and is remembered
today as, the "Know-Nothing Party." In the 1856 presidential election, as shown
here, Maryland sent its electoral votes to the party (which had nominated
former President Millard Fillmore). The leading Know-Nothing in Congress, Lewis
Charles Levin of Pennsylvania, was also the first Jewish member of the US
Congress. American nativists have usually been more afraid of some kinds of
immigrants than others — and one way for an immigrant to assimilate into
American life is to play the "good immigrant," attacking the bad ones.
- The Public I
When Louisville rioted against Catholic immigrants
In 1855, the Know-Nothing Party was beginning to take over politics in
Louisville, Kentucky. The night before a local election in August,
Know-Nothings armed with torches paraded through the city's Catholic areas,
telling voters to "keep their elbows in." That day — fueled by rumors that
hundreds of armed Germans were taking over polling places, and that an Irishman
had killed a Know-Nothing — the Know-Nothings exploded into wholesale rioting
in the Irish and German sections of town. At least 22 people were killed — and
probably many more. From the blog the Public I: "The death toll would have been
higher but in the German district one of the first buildings looted was
Armbruster's brewery. The rioters got so drunk they could only satisfy
themselves with torching the building before passing out."
- W. B. Farwell, John E. Kunkler, E. B. Pond/San Francisco Board of
Supervisors
An 1885 "vice map" of San Francisco’s Chinatown
The first immigration restrictions in US history were passed in 1882, when the
Chinese Exclusion Act more or less eliminated legal immigration from China.
This created a market in human smuggling and trafficking — especially of young
Chinese women. The US Customs and Border Protection website is still proud of
the agency's work in "kidnapping" Chinese women "in order to save them" from
brothel owners and human traffickers. But as this "vice map of Chinatown,"
created by the City of San Francisco, shows, attempts to "save" immigrant
victims from their traffickers often bled into prejudice against the immorality
of the immigrant community itself.
- Karl Gotz
Fears of an immigrant "fifth column" bought into Nazi propaganda
One of the recurring themes in American nativism is the fear that immigrants
will be more loyal to their native countries than to their adopted ones —
including in times of war. This map, from a book of Nazi propaganda, tried to
exploit those fears. It sent the message that every one of the 20 million
German Americans in the United States could be counted on to stand with their
homeland rather than with the country that their families had lived in for (in
some cases) generations. But the fear was groundless. The United States never
had a substantial Nazi-sympathizer movement — and the closest thing to it were
the "isolationists," who were interested in staying out of World War II not
because they were loyal to Germany, but because they didn't feel any connection
to Europe.
- All Aboard Magazine
Japanese internment camps
During World War II, fears of an immigrant fifth column led President Franklin
D. Roosevelt to order 120,000 Japanese Americans into internment camps in the
western United States. The majority of internees were American citizens, and
many were born in the United States. Internment ended in 1944, before Japan
surrendered to the United States. But many internees had lost their homes and
belongings. Several thousand German Americans and Italian Americans, among
others, were also put into camps during World War II. But the scope of the
Japanese internment is striking — especially because no Japanese American was
ever found guilty of espionage.
- Emma Bourne/Council Against Intolerance In America
Langston Hughes's doodles turn a pro-immigrant map into an anti-Jim Crow one
While other Americans worried that immigrants were a threat to a country at
war, the Council Against Intolerance made this illustrated map to argue the
opposite: that prejudice itself would weaken the United States against its
enemies. It's a relatively early example of an idea that's become popular in
recent decades: that diversity itself is what makes America strong, and that
difference is something to be celebrated rather than eliminated. This
particular copy of the council's map was owned by Langston Hughes, who penciled
in a couple of illustrations of his own — including a burning Ku Klux Klan
cross near Louisiana — making the point that the people most interested in
preserving differences between groups tend to be the ones least interested in
tolerance.
A bordered country
- ACLU
This is what the border actually is
Popularly, "the border" is a line between United States and Mexico. But
officially, it’s a 100-mile area that stretches all the way around the United
States — covering as much as two-thirds of the nation’s population. The legal
definition of the border matters because the government has long said it can do
things "at the border" to track down unauthorized migration and smuggling that
it can’t do other places, from setting up "checkpoints" within the United
States to check drivers’ citizenship to straight-up racial profiling. As
recently as 2011, Border Patrol officers were boarding buses in upstate New
York to ask passengers for IDs, and responding to police calls in Forks,
Washington. New guidance from the federal government, which came out in
December 2014, has opened the door to narrowing the definition of the "border"
— but it’s not clear whether it will.
- Joss Fong/Vox
The militarization of the US/Mexico border
Increasing border security is a very recent phenomenon: the number of Border
Patrol agents on the United States/Mexico border has more than quadrupled from
1995 to 2014. The militarization of the border hasn't been evenly spaced: it's
concentrated on the areas that people are most likely to cross. The buildup was
supposed to stop unauthorized entrances, but it also made it harder for
unauthorized immigrants to leave the United States if they ever wanted to
return. Immigrants who were used to splitting time between their jobs in the
United States and their families at home moved their families to the United
States instead — and the unauthorized population grew, and settled.
- Arizona OpenGIS Initiative for Deceased Migrants
A volunteer effort to identify immigrants who died crossing the border
The more agents there are on the high-traffic sectors of the border, the more
immigrants try to brave the stretches too dangerous for Border Patrol. That's
made the border more lethal: immigrants often die of thirst or heat exposure
when crossing the desert. Some citizen groups attempt to provide water stations
to keep migrants safe, though they've had to face court cases arguing that
they're trying to encourage people to come to the United States illegally.
Officials in Pima County, Arizona, working with a human rights group, use GIS
mapping to track deaths of migrants along the border. They've recorded 2,187
deaths in Arizona alone from 2001 to 2014.
- El Informador
La Bestia
Mexican freight trains carry cargo-like cars and plastics northward to the
United States. They also, for years, have carried Mexican and Central Americans
hoping to cross. Hopping "La Bestia" (the popular term for immigrants stowing
onto Mexican freight trains) has become a symbol of unauthorized migration to
the United States — not just in politics, but in American popular culture. It’s
also an illustration of just how far "border security" can stretch outside of
the United States’ own territory. In 2014, the Mexican government agreed to
force the major freight lines to travel more quickly — a plan that will take a
few years — in the hopes that it will be harder for would-be migrants to catch
rides. But just as border militarization in the United States simply made the
journey more dangerous for desperate migrants, the question will be whether a
faster Bestia will deter migrants or punish them.
- Diego Valle-Jones
The maps you need to understand the 2014 "border crisis"
Scholars of immigration agree that people make the decision to migrate based on
two types of reasons: "push factors" that lead them to leave their country of
origin, and "pull factors" that lead them to come to one new country in
particular. When tens of thousands of Central American families and
unaccompanied children presented themselves to border agents in Texas in the
spring and summer of 2014, many Americans and politicians blamed "pull factors"
like President Obama’s Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals program. But a
map created by the Department of Homeland Security, depicting where
unaccompanied child migrants were coming from, told a different story: migrants
were leaving some of the most dangerous communities in the most dangerous
countries in the world.
A borderless world
- Migration Policy Institute
Immigrants come from everywhere
As noted above, since 1965, immigration to the United States has become a truly
global phenomenon. It's one thing to know that, but it's another thing to see
it in front of you.
- Pew Research Center Social and Demographic Trends Project
Remittances: the foreign aid program bigger than foreign aid
Many immigrants send money back home — called remittances — either to help them
save up and buy property to return to their home countries or to support family
members who can’t come to the United States themselves. Immigrants officially
sent $51 billion in remittances home in 2012 — far larger than the US
government’s foreign aid budget of $39 billion that year. This map shows that
the countries that receive the most remittances aren’t always the countries
with the most emigrants in the United States — they’re the poorest countries
with large US-emigrant populations.
- Andy Kiersz/Business Insider
The hidden diversity of America's immigrants
The stereotypical face of immigration to America in 2015 is a Latino one.
Americans routinely overestimate how many Latinos are immigrants, and
particularly how many are unauthorized immigrants. And it’s true that Latin
American countries send more immigrants to the United States than other
regions. Because of that, it’s sometimes necessary to dig a little deeper to
see how diverse the immigrant population really is. If this map of New York
showed the most popular non-English language in each neighborhood, it would
likely be monotonous. But by showing the most popular language that isn’t
English or Spanish, it shows that New York is still a quilt of dozens of
different immigrant communities.
- Jesse Allen/NASA
The twin cities of El Paso and Ciudad Juarez
El Paso and Ciudad Juarez might be the world's strangest twin city. The
separation of the US border helps create vastly different environments in the
two cities: El Paso is far more affluent than its Mexican twin; Juarez is a
global crime capital, while El Paso has long been one of the safest cities in
the United States. But they're undoubtedly two halves of the same metropolitan
area. In 2011, 14,000 people crossed one footbridge between the two cities on a
daily basis. This colorized NASA photo shows buildings in gray and vegetation
in red. The band of vegetation in the lower right of the photo might be the
first thing you notice: evidence of a visible barrier separating Mexicans and
Americans. But in the heart of the city, in the center of the photo, it takes
tracing the Rio Grande to tell where Mexico ends and America begins.
Credits
- Editor Ezra Klein
- Developer Yuri Victor
- Special Thanks Matt Yglesias, Joss Fong
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