[list_indonesia] [ppiindia] Re: tentang Da Vinci Code

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Mas Ari, saya berpendapat, terutama dari penelaahan socio-historie,=20
pencerahan yang menaikkan derajat wanita, adalah terutama pembuahan=20
dari masa enlightment (Jerman: Aufkl=E4rung). Dibawah ini saya gelar=20
sebuah tulisan mengenai European enlightment diabad XVII.

Juga, menurut saya, karena terjadi europaization dar ajaran=20
Kristiani, sebagai dampak berpindahnya para rasul dan bapak gereja,=20
dari Timur Tengah ke Eropa, melalui Yunani dan Italia. Disinilah=20
masuk dasar dasar falsafah Eropa dari Sokrates dkk. (ajaran=20
Augustinus, Thomas dari Aquin dll).

Kedudukan wanita di masayrakat Eropa memang sangat berbeda daripada=20
di tempat2 lain didunia. Jadi budaya Eropalah yang mendorong=20
kesemuanya ini, bukan murni budaya Kristiani.

Mengapa? Karena tempat wanita dalam masyarakat, juga dalam ajaran=20
Kristiani, tak banyak beda dengan dalam ajaran Yahudi, yang adalah=20
subordinated. Kita baca ini terutama dalam Perjanjian Lama. Wanita=20
juga digambarkan sebagai sebagian dari rusuk pria, ini berarti,=20
wanita adalah bagian dari pria. Atau wanita adalah tubuh, pria adalah=20
kepala.Dst.

Jangan lupa, ini memang budaya suku Semit. Kedudukan wanita dimasa=20
nabi Musa, dan di tanah Arab setelah Islam muncul, tak banyak=20
berbeda. Juga dalam masyarakat Yahudi orthodox, sekarang juga di=20
Eropa dan Amerika, kdudukan wanita exactly sama dengan dalam=20
masyarakat Arab. Sama.

Ini juga kita temui dalam masyarakat Hindu India. Atau dalam=20
masyarakat Tao dikalangan masyarakat Tiongkok.

Jadi karena itulah ada peningkatan derajat wanita dalam masyarakat=20
Kristiani modern WALAU ada kisah dosa Eva atau Hawa. Budaya=20
occidental (Eropa) dengan falsafah Yunaninya yang membawa ini semua.

Konsep penebusan dosa ini, adalah bagian dari ajaran Kristen yang=20
membuat mumet saudara saudara umat lain untuk mengerti. Juga sebagian=20
umat Kristen sendiri masih mumet.

Misalnya, apakah penebusan ini juga berlaku bagi semua umat, atau=20
hanya mereka yang dipermandikan sebagai Kristen. kalau dipikir,=20
Kristus tak mengenal perbedaan antara Kristen dan Non-Kristen, karena=20
istilah Kristen belum ada.

Atau, mana yang lebih berbobot dalam membuka jalan ke surga, dharmaku=20
(sebagaimana ajaran Buddha) atau penebusan Kristus? Banyak kenalan=20
saya, yang sangat memandang enteng dosa, karena beranggapan, kita=20
tokh telah ditebusnya. Atau dengan mengaku dosa, karena "Kristus tokh=20
akan menebusku".

Kalau saya tak salah menangkap, konsep penebusan ini, terutama=20
dikembangkan oleh murid murid Kristus dalam perjalanannya ke Yunani,=20
jadi setelah Kristus wafat.

Mungkin ada saudara pakar Kristiani yang mampu menerangkan, konsep=20
ini adalah bagian dari wejangan Kristus selama Dia hidup?

Salam pencerahan

Danardono
----------------------


As a historical category, the term "Enlightenment" refers to a series=20
of changes in European thought and letters. It is one of the few=20
historical categories that was coined by the people who lived through=20
the era (most historical categories, such as "Renaissance," "early=20
modern," "Reformation," "Tokugawa Enlightenment," etc., are made up=20
by historians after the fact). When the writers, philosophers and=20
scientists of the eighteenth century referred to their activities as=20
the "Enlightenment," they meant that they were breaking from the past=20
and replacing the obscurity, darkness, and ignorance of European=20
thought with the "light" of truth.

   Although the Enlightenment is one of the few self-named historical=20
categories, determining the beginning of the Enlightenment is a=20
difficult affair, as we noted earlier in this module. Not only can we=20
not easily find a beginning to the Enlightenment, we can't really=20
identify an end point either. For we still more or less live in an=20
Enlightenment world; while philosophers and cultural historians have=20
dubbed the late nineteenth and all of the twentieth century as "post-
Enlightenment," we still walk around with a world view largely based=20
on Enlightenment thought.

   So in the spirit of not dating the Enlightenment, we will simply=20
refer to the changes in European thought in the seventeenth century=20
as "Seventeenth Century Enlightenment Thought," with the=20
understanding that our use of the term may invite criticism.

   The main components of Enlightenment thought are as follows:


 The universe is fundamentally rational, that is, it can be=20
understood through the use of reason alone;
=20


 Truth can be arrived at through empirical observation, the use of=20
reason, and systematic doubt;
=20


 Human experience is the foundation of human understanding of truth;=20
authority is not to be preferred over experience;
=20


 All human life, both social and individual, can be understood in the=20
same way the natural world can be understood; once understood, human=20
life, both social and individual, can be manipulated or engineered in=20
the same way the natural world can be manipulated or engineered;
=20


 Human history is largely a history of progress;
=20


 Human beings can be improved through education and the development=20
of their rational facilities;
=20


 Religious doctrines have no place in the understanding of the=20
physical and human worlds;
=20

   There are two distinct developments in Enlightenment thought: the=20
scientific revolution which resulted in new systems of understanding=20
the physical world (this is covered in a later chapter), and the=20
redeployment of the human sciences that apply scientific thinking to=20
what were normally interpretive sciences. In the first, the two great=20
innovations were the development of empirical thought and the=20
mechanistic world view. Empiricism is based on the notion that human=20
observation is a reliable indicator of the nature of phenomena;=20
repeated human observation can produce reasonable expectations about=20
future natural events. In the second, the universe is regarded as a=20
machine. It functions by natural and predictable rules; although God=20
created the universe, he does not interfere in its day to day=20
runnings. Once the world is understood as a machine, then it can be=20
manipulated and engineered for the benefit of humanity in the same=20
way as machines are.
=20


The Human Sciences
    These ideas were steadily exported to the human sciences as well.=20
In theories of personality, human development, and social mechanics,=20
seventeenth century thinkers moved away from religious and moral=20
explanations of human behavior and interactions and towards an=20
empirical analysis and mechanistic explanation of the laws of human=20
behavior and interaction.
=20


Thomas Hobbes
    The first major thinker of the seventeenth century to apply new=20
methods to the human sciences was Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) whose=20
book Leviathan is one of the most revolutionary and influential works=20
on political theory in European history. Hobbes was greatly=20
interested in the new sciences; he spent some time in Italy with=20
Galileo and eagerly read the work of William Harvey, who was applying=20
the new physical science methods to human physiology. After the=20
English Civil War, Hobbes determined that political philosophy had to=20
be seriously revised. The old political philosophy, which relied on=20
religion, ethics, and interpretation, had produced what he felt was a=20
singular disaster in English history. He proposed that political=20
philosophy should be based on the same methods of exposition and=20
explanation as were being applied to the physical sciences.

   When he applied these explanatory principles to politics and=20
states, he arrived at two radical and far-reaching conclusions:

All human law derives from natural law; when human law departed from=20
natural law, disaster followed;=20
All monarchs ruled not by the consent of heaven, but by the consent=20
of the people.=20
   These were radical ideas. In the first, Hobbes believed that human=20
beings were material, physical objects that were ruled by material,=20
physical laws. Everything that human beings feel, think, and judge,=20
are simply physical reactions to external stimuli. Sensation produces=20
feeling, and feeling produces decision, and decision produces action.=20
We are all, then, machines. The fundamental motivation that spurs=20
human beings on is selfishness: all human beings wish to maximize=20
their pleasure and minimize their pain. As long as political=20
philosophy is built on some other principle, such as morality, the=20
human inclination to selfishness will always result in tragedy.

   Since all human beings are selfish, this means that no person is=20
really safe from the predations of his or her fellow beings. In its=20
natural state, humanity is at war with itself. Individuals battle=20
other individuals in a perpetual struggle for advantage, power, and=20
gain. Hobbes argued that the society was a group of selfish=20
individuals that united into a single body in order to maximize their=20
safety-- to protect themselves from one another. The primary purpose=20
of society is to maximize the happiness of its individuals. At some=20
early point, individuals gathered into a society and agreed to=20
a "social contract" that stipulated the laws and rules they would all=20
live by.
=20



From the title page to Leviathan
The title page illustrates Hobbes's attitude towards authority and=20
the dependence of the human community on that authority.=20=20
=20




    Human beings, however, could not be trusted simply to live by=20
their agreements. For this reason, authority was created in order to=20
enforce the terms of the social contract. The creation of authority,=20
by which Hobbes meant a monarch, transformed society into a state .=20
For Hobbes, humanity is better off living under the circumscribed=20
freedoms of a monarchy rather than the violent anarchy of a=20
completely equal and free life.

   Using this reasoning, Hobbes argued for unquestioning obedience of=20
authority. In a twist of fate, however, both his methods of inquiry=20
and his basic assumptions would form the basis of arguments against=20
absolute authority.
=20


Baruch Spinoza
    Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677) was a Jewish philosopher living in the=20
Netherlands who applied the new sciences to questions of ethics and=20
philosophy. His most famous work, the Ethics , attempts to use a=20
system of demonstration first outlined by Francis Bacon and fully=20
theorized by Ren=E9 Descartes that begins with certain definitions and=20
draws from these consequent axioms and corollaries. His basic=20
definition of good ("The highest good of the mind is knowledge of God=20
and the highest virtue of the mind is to know God") formed the=20
foundation of all of his ethical statements, including some highly=20
controversial statements ("Pity is not a virtue"). The work was=20
extraordinarily controversial, for from his base definitions he=20
derived the notion that God and nature were essentially identical. He=20
argued the same thing that the Greek philosopher Parmenides did=20
almost two thousand years earlier: there is one and only one thing in=20
the universe and that one thing is God. Everything else is simply a=20
part of God. Any proposition concerning the physical is, then, a=20
proposition about the nature of God. For Spinoza the new physical=20
sciences were, by and large, coterminous with theology. This position=20
would be reiterated by Isaac Newton and the deists, who argued that=20
understanding the rational workings of the universe would also mean=20
understanding the rational workings of its creator, God.

   Like Hobbes, Spinoza believed that human action was fundamentally=20
mechanistic. Human actions resulted from two things: the external=20
environment and internal passions. The relationship between the=20
environment, passions, and human action was a mechanistic=20
relationship; all human actions, then, could be explained in terms of=20
laws. The fundamental drive that animates all human beings is the=20
effort to preserve themselves and their own autonomy in relation to=20
external things. However, the one area of human activity that is free=20
from the influence of the external environment and human passions is=20
rational thought; the more that thought is disengaged from the=20
external world and human passsion, that is, the more abstract that=20
thought is, the more free the individual. Human freedom, for Spinoza,=20
existed only in abstract thinking.

   In political theory, Spinoza argued that human beings=20
fundamentally act in accordance with natural law. Like Hobbes,=20
Spinoza believed that human beings pursue their own self-
preseveration. In a natural state, the only "wrong" that a human=20
being can commit is an action that results in his or her destruction=20
or downfall. Since human beings cannot preserve themselves in=20
isolation, they form societies by which individual "right" is=20
subsumed under "common right," a notion very similar to Hobbes'=20
social contract. The means by which a society enforces its common=20
right on the individual is "dominion" (in Latin, "imperium").=20
Dominion takes three forms: dominion by the multitude (democracy), by=20
a select few (aristocracy), or by a single individual (monarchy). The=20
concepts of right and wrong, justice and injustice are only=20
established when the common right is articulated through dominion;=20
that is, when a ruler asserts something as right or wrong, it is then=20
right or wrong (in nature there is no right or wrong, justice or=20
injustice). The relationship between the right (power) of the=20
individual and the right of the dominion is an inverse relationship:=20
the more power that accrues to individuals, the less is available to=20
the dominion; the more power that accrues to authorities, the less is=20
available to individuals. Surprisingly, Spinoza implies that=20
democracy is the best way to balance individual and common right=20
since it more closely guarantees that the beliefs of the multitude=20
will correspond with the beliefs and actions of the dominion.
=20


John Locke
    The last important philosopher, besides Pascal and Descartes, of=20
human sciences in the seventeenth century was John Locke (1632-1704).=20
Locke was steeped in the new physical sciences; he was an avid reader=20
of Francis Bacon and Isaac Newton, and he was a close friend of=20
Robert Boyle, one of the founders of modern chemistry. He also read=20
Pascal and Descartes avidly. He wrote two far-reaching and massively=20
influential works on human sciences, An Essay Concerning Human=20
Understanding (1690) and Two Treatises on Government (1690).

   The Essay takes as its subject human psychology and cognition; it=20
is, undoubtedly, the first European work on human cognition. Locke=20
applied the new science to explaining the human mind itself and all=20
its operations; he started with a radical definition of the human=20
mind. For Locke, the human mind enters the world with no pre-formed=20
ideas whatsoever. The human mind at birth is a blank, a tabula rasa=20
(erased board). Human sensation: taste, touch, smell, hearing, and=20
especially vision filled the empty mind with objects of sensation.=20
From these sensations, humans eventually derive a sense of order and=20
rationality. All human thought, then, and all human passion is=20
ultimately derived from sensation and sensation alone. In Locke's=20
view, the human mind is completely empirical. Not only is he arguing=20
that the best knowledge is empirical knowledge, he was arguing that=20
the only knowledge is empirical knowledge; there is no other kind.

   One of the consequences of this empirical view of humans means=20
that every human being enters the world with all the same capacities.=20
No one is by virtue of birth more moral or knowledgeable than anyone=20
else. Since all moral behavior arises from one's empirical=20
experiences, that means that immoral behavior is primarily a product=20
of the environment rather than the individual. If you accept that=20
line of reasoning, that means that you can change moral and=20
intellectual outcomes in human development by changing the=20
environment. Locke proposed that education above everything else was=20
responsible for forging the moral and intellectual character of=20
individuals; he proposed in part an extension of education to every=20
member of society. This view of education still dominates Western=20
culture to this day.

   In the Two Treatises , Locke argued that government and authority=20
was based on natural law. Unlike Hobbes, Locke believed that natural=20
law dictated that all human beings were fundamentally equal; he=20
derived this argument from his theories of human development. Since=20
every human being walked into the world with the same capacities as=20
every other human being, that meant that inequality was an unnatural=20
result of the environments that individuals are forced to live in, a=20
belief that still underlies the Western notion of human development.=20
Human beings have a natural inclination to preserve their equality=20
and independence, since these are natural aspects of humanness. For=20
Locke, humans enter into social contracts only to help adjudicate=20
disputes between individuals or groups. Absolute power, then, is an=20
unnatural development in human history.

   For Locke, the purpose of authority is to protect human equality=20
and freedom; this is why social groups agree to a "social contract"=20
that places an authority over them. When that authority ceases to=20
care for the welfare, independence, and equality of individual=20
humans, the social contract is broken and it is the duty of the=20
members of society to overthrow that ruler. This work was published=20
shortly after the Glorious Revolution and clearly reflects the=20
political fallout from that event. It would also serve as one of the=20
central influences in the formation of the American government.

Richard Hooker=20
=20
----------------------------------------








--- In ppiindia@xxxxxxxxxxxxxxx, "Ari Condro" <masarcon@xxxx> wrote:
> Konsep dosa asal memang dogma yang ada di agama Yahudi dan Kristen.
> Karena itulah pemaknaan peristiwa Adam dan Hawa itu diturunkan ke
> bumi itu beda pemaknaannya antara agama Islam dengan agama lainnya.
> Dalam khazanah islam dinamakan kisah-kisah Israiliyyat.
>=20
> (Anehnya dengan beban sejarah yang lebih ringan ini,
> kok dalam Islam, kita banyak mendengar wanita mengalami
> subordinasi ya ....  Sayangnya lagi, banyak dari kita yang
> tidak bisa mengakui hal ini.  Padahal dari saudara2 kita
> yang kristen justru banyak masalah yang telah mengalami pencerahan).
>=20
> Kalau konsep penebusan dosa itu setahu saya malah hanya di agama=20
Kristen
> aja.
>=20
> salam,
> Ari Condro
> Pak Danardhono ikutan donk .....
>=20
>=20
>=20
>=20
> ----- Original Message -----
> From: "Lina Dahlan" <linadahlan@xxxx>
>=20
> Dari mana dasarnya mbak kalau dikatakan Kitab AlQur'an menulis
> tentang dosa awal yang dilakukan Adam dan Hawa, dimana memang pada
> dasarnya HAWA YANG PERTAMA KALI TERGODA?





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