[accessibleimage] Scientific Theories On Blindness & Arts/Crafts Education

Hi,
This is a copy of the presentation I sent to the other
list. Didn't get throught, so am sending it again.

Sending a Powerpoint presentation that I received from Simon
Hayhoe,a Ph.D. student. I received it from Professor
Kennedy, Toronto University.
Sending the presentation as text following this message, I
have added numbers for each slide and dashes for the bullets
under each
heading.
Simon said if you have comments he would also be interested
in hearing them. His address is simonhayhoe at hotmail.com
I thought his presentation helps to articulate why there is
resistance to arts and art education for the blind.
All the best,
Lisa


1. The Epistemology of Disability:
Scientific Theories On Blindness & Arts/Crafts Education

Simon Hayhoe, Toronto & Birmingham Universities

2. What Epistemology Is
The study of developing scientific theories & ideas. For
instance, the process of transition from behavioural to
cognitive theories of learning and psychology.

3. Why Study  Blindness & Arts/Crafts Education?
-It is often thought to be common sense that people who are
blind cannot appreciate or create visual arts.
-This subject has led to related research on the development
and interpretation of all of the senses, disabilities and
civil rights issues.
-Earlier research* has shown that performance in art classes
is not mainly dependent on levels of blindness or visual
memories, but on the early experiences of fine art.
-There are now a number of fine art graduates in England who
are legally registered blind from birth or early age.
* Hayhoe S (2000) The effects of late arts education on
adults with early visual disabilities. Educational

4. Research & Evaluation 6/3/229-249
Other Approaches to Analysing Disability:
The Medical Model
-This model looks at blindness simply as the symptom of a
disease. This model works towards curing the disease.
-This model sees blindness as a fixed symptom. The model
works towards treating the whole illness in isolation. It
does not consider before and after lives.
-This model focuses on blindness as a deficit. It defines it
as abnormal and not equivalent to sight.
Other Approaches to Analysing Disability:

5. The Social Scientific Model
-In its most extreme state, this model regards disability as
a socially defined label alone. However, it mostly accepts
that disability is a condition that is partially formed from
medical symptoms, but is greatly influenced by social
attitudes.
-This model is often associated with a notion that people
who are disabled are oppressed by people who are able
bodied. This model works towards civil rights for people who
are disabled.
-Since the growth of a contemporary civil rights movement,
this model regards all people with disabilities as equally
oppressed. People are regarded the same whatever their
disability. It is not a person?s physical condition but
their social attitude and institutional opinions that
disable people.

6. Other Approaches to Analysing Disability:
The Philosophical Model
-This model looks at the outcomes of the traits of
disabilities. These include socialisation, perception,
communication and cognition. This model works towards an
understanding of all human conditions.
-The model distinguishes between early & late disabilities,
and the transition between these two as separate mental
states.
-This model works towards overcoming the problems caused by
disability without necessarily addressing their
rectification. Disability is simply the subject of academic
curiosity.

7. Other Approaches to Analysing Disability:
The Psychological Model (Perceptual)
-This model looks at the problems caused by the symptoms of
disability; such as understanding objects, communication and
cognition. Works towards making people?s lives easier, or
facilitating education.
-This model is restricted to sensory impairments, such as
blindness and deafness. Distinguishes between early & late
disability.  Uses this distinction to facilitate smooth
transitions or re/education for these two distinct groups.
-This model works towards overcoming the problems caused by
disability without necessarily being able to treat it. The
aim is to work on traits resulting from the disability, such
as lack of communication.

8. Other Approaches to Analysing Disability:
The Psychological Model (Developmental)
-This model looks at the individual and social problems
caused by the symptoms of disability; such as socialisation,
social communications, emotional trauma and cognition. Works
towards making people?s lives easier, or facilitating
education.
-This model examines the problems caused by specific
disabilities and disability in general.
-This model distinguishes between early & late disability. 
Uses this distinction to facilitate smooth transitions or
re/education for these two distinct groups.
-This model works towards overcoming the problems caused by
disability without necessary curing the disability. The aim
is to work on traits resulting from disability; such as lack
of communication.

9. The Epistemological Model of Disability
-The model acknowledges elements of all of the previous
models. This model sees disabilities as being caused by
scientifically definable traits.
-This model regards each disabled person as having their own
quirk traits. It also distinguishes between early and late
disability.
-This model argues that disability can be analysed as a
philosophical concept, a social label, a medically defined
symptoms or a psychological difference. The epistemological
model works towards understanding these concepts in order to
inform more accurate and effective definitions of
disabilities and solutions.
-Attitudes towards disabilities have a history, which
changes. These changes are according to the context of
ability/disability, and the cultural context of societies
and institutions.
-It sees scientific theories of disability as interpretable
through models of Subjective Disability and Objective
Disability.
-Social definitions are neither intrinsically good nor bad.
They simply work towards the objective of reducing
unhappiness. All methods and definitions must work towards
this.

10. Epistemological Mode of Analysis:
The Basis of the Formula
Popper? said that there are no scientific truths / laws. He
argued that science simply created a series of refined
problems. You might find the truth, but you could never know
it. He said that this could be expressed through the
following formula:
P1 ð TT ð EE ð P2
P1 = Problem 1, TT = Tentative Theory, EE = Error
Elimination
P2 = Problem 2.

Kuhn?s© theory of scientific revolutions agreed that there
were no set scientific truths or laws. However, he felt that
scientific theories could be better expressed as paradigms,
defended by theorists. Theories only changed after large
bodies of evidence accumulated causing a revolution in
paradigmatic thinking.
? Popper K (1979) Objective knowledge: An evolutionary
approach (revised edition). Oxford: Clarendon Press.
© Kuhn T (1996) The structure of scientific revolutions, 3rd
Edition. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

11. Epistemological Mode of Analysis:
The Birmingham Variation
In the Birmingham alteration of Popper?s formula, we pay
tribute to Popper?s notion of theoretical subjectivity. We
also argue that theories and truths / laws are matters of
problem solving. However, we also pay tribute to Kuhn?s and
others? notion that there are paradigms of thought.
Paradigms are also influenced, amongst other things, by
cultural and social influences. These theories, however, are
defined by the statement of problems, and thus use Popper?s
model as its basis:

P1 ð TT (E, S, P, Sy, C) ð EE (E, S, P, Sy, C) ð P2

P1 = Problem 1, TT = Tentative Theory, EE = Error
Elimination
P2 = Problem 2.

E = Environment, S = Social/Institutional Factors, P =
Power,
Sy = Synchronic/Factors occurring only in an era, C =
Chaotic/inexplicable/scientifically unexplainable factors

12. Subjective Disability
-Subjective disability is described in relation to tasks,
whether they are social or natural.
-Subjective disability only exists within certain tasks in
certain locations. E.g. people are not blind -during a
telephone conversation, although their language may still
refer to different understandings.
-Subjective disability is not linked to an identity. It has
no cultural or symbolic characteristics.
-Subjective disability can be alleviated through technology.
E.g. blindness as a trait can be alleviated by optical
character readers, large type, audio-tapes, strong
spectacles and Braille.
-People who are regarded as able bodied in what we regard as
normal living conditions can be disabled under what are
regarded as abnormal conditions. E.g. people can be blinded
in extreme darkness or very bright light.
-Disability is not regarded as a social but a practical
category. E.g. it is based on individual tasks rather than a
social identity.

13. Objective Disability
-Objective Disability is an identity defined by a society or
institutional concepts.
-People who are disabled are identified by symbols. E.g.
Dark glasses, the look of their eyes, white canes, facial
expressions.
-Disabled people are defined by their perceived usefulness
to society. E.g. through tasks that produce capital.
-People are judged on the permanence of their disability.
E.g. a person who is temporarily blinded is still regarded
as person with sight, because they have the potential to
increase their performance.
-Social assumptions are made about people?s characters based
on their blindness. E.g. people previously have regarded
blind people as sexual deviant or innocent.

14.
-Sex,
-Laziness,
-Religion,
-Snobbery,
-War,
-Politics,
-Money

15. Case Study 1:
Late 18th Century-Mid 19th Century British Asylums
-Blindness often caused by sexually transmitted diseases.
-Asylums based in port cities with large populations of
prostitutes and single men from many countries.
-Asylums were set up by members of non-conformist Protestant
foundations, who were often blind themselves.
-The asylums believed that inmates had no usable vision
whatsoever.
-These religious groups believed that blind people were at
risk of deviance through not seeing the beauty of -God and
nature, and that they should be pitied.
-Asylum inmates were expelled for deviance, but treated as
family if they contributed positively.
-The religious groups believed that students could find God
through hand crafts and later through sacred music.
-This attitude survived because it was profitable and self
sustaining.

16. Case Study 1:
Late 18th Century-Mid 19th Century British Asylums
"Then view you pensive, interesting group,
Hard is their lot,- with poverty they stoop,
The shades of darkness on their eyelids dwell,
They know not how to chase the mystic spell.
View nature's soul! doth not that god of day!
Pour in delight upon the visual ray?-
View Flora's beauties in their gay attire,
Say, do not these a secret joy inspire?
The charms of nature, and the works of art,

17. Case Study 2:
-Late 18th Century-Early 19th Century French Institutions
Institutions founded from the philosophy of the
Enlightenment. This philosophy was provided by surgeons and
teachers connected with the Emperor, such as Diderot & Hauy.
-Funded initially by middle class charity and imperial
patronage. The first student was middle class although the
other children were beggars.
-The rhetoric was of a moral equivalence of students who
were blind with those who had sight, however intellectual
equivalence was doubted.
-Literature was the main subject at the schools, as it was
thought that this would provide an enlightenment. Braille
thus evolved from this institution.
-This attitude did not survive in France because it was
unprofitable, and its funding ran dry. It was also
politically contentious.

18. Case Study 2:
Late 18th Century-Early 19th Century French Institutions
?Since my son must give up light,
At least open to him the path of wisdom;
And may the radiance of Virtue at the bottom of his heart 
Compensate him, alas!
For the daylight he has lost.?

Paulson WR (1987) Enlightenment, romanticism and the blind
in France. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University
Press.

19. Case Study 3:
Late Early 19th Century Austrian Education
-Believed in integration and state education.
-Original educationalists were religious Catholics.
-Believed that touching objects and stimulating children?s
minds would prevent masturbation.
-It was felt that blind children were particularly prone to
masturbation as they did not have mental visual stimulus.
-Believed that literacy was also important, and promoted
Braille education.
-Promoted handcraft training, so as to allow students to
have an income after their education. However, they believed
that these handcrafts should be balanced with a literate
education.
-Believed in creativity in touch, and devised what appeared
to be the first recorded case of sculptural education ? This
involved carving crucifixes, an important art in Catholic
churches in this era.

20. Case Study 3:
Late Early 19th Century Austrian Education
"[The] blind person who cannot be stimulated by vision and
who is thus used to gaining pleasure from feeling objects is
more liable than others to involve himself in the vice of
masturbation that weakens the body and soul. Exercise and
occupation can prevent this most effectively.?

Klein JW (Lowenfeld B Trans) (1836) Guide for a suitable
treatment of blind children from their earliest youth on in
the circle of their families and in the schools of their
home communities. Featured in Blindness 1971/231-242. 

21. Conclusion
-Legacies of this history still exist today. E.g. Handcrafts
have only recently been surpassed by creative art in Europe
and North America. Until recently, little creative art
education has existed in schools for the blind or some state
education.
-People still often assume that people who are blind cannot
understand art. Yet they assume that people who are blind
can read, which is a more visual exercise than tactile,
plastic tasks.
-Education and training in Britain and North America are
still often based on vocational training in manual trades
for students thought incapable of academic thought.
-Students who are blind are still more likely to study music
than other forms of creative arts. Braille has developed
sophisticated technology, and has a large body of research.
Tactile diagrams and research into this subject is still
relatively new.

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